Materials provide high temperature and/or corrosion resistance, making them suitable for chemical-processing applications. Examples include ceramics or refractories with resistance to molten glass, ceramics, metals, plastics or other materials during milling, firing, calcination, fusion or other processes.
Dielectric ceramics have high electrical resistivity (low electrical conductivity) and high dielectric strength. Dielectric strength is the resistance to electrical breakdown under an applied electric field.
Materials are suitable for electronics applications, including RF and microwave. Ferrites, garnets, alumina/sapphire and silicates have sufficient dielectric properties for use in electronic, radio frequency (RF) and microwave devices such as antenna radomes, patch antenna substrates, thin/thick film substrates and resonators. In addition, ceramics, glass and other non-metallic compounds or elemental semiconductors are used as substrates, wafer or dummy wafers in semiconductor manufacturing. Ceramics are also used for wafer chucks or holders, wafer furnace boats and thin film chamber liners.
Materials are designed for foundry and metal-processing applications. Ceramic and refractory crucibles, tubes, stoppers, liners, spouts, permanent molds, thermocouple protection tubes, combustion gas heater tubes, submersible heater tubes, die casting stalks/sleeves, and other furnace components are used in foundries for melting and casting aluminum, steel, copper alloys or other metals.
Ceramic materials are used in the fabricating or processing of optical components such as lenses, windows, prisms, optical fibers, and lasing material components. Materials with optical applications include single-crystal ceramics, transparent ceramics, sapphire, and quartz.
Refractory and high-temperature materials are hard, heat-resistant products such as alumina cement, fire clay, bricks, precast shapes, cement or monolithics, and ceramic kiln furniture. Ceramic refractories have high melting points and are suitable for applications requiring wear-resistance, high temperature strength, electrical or thermal insulation, or other specialized characteristics.
Materials are designed for seals, sealing, barrier or containment applications. Liquid and viscous compounds can be used to fill gaps between seams or on surfaces to contain fluids, prevent leaks, and prevent infiltration of unwanted material.
Structural applications require ceramic components with a suitable strength, elastic modulus, toughness, and other mechanical properties. Ceramics can have much higher compressive strengths and elastic moduli compared to metals.
Thermally-insulating ceramics and refractories provide a thermal barrier between components and a hot or cold source. These ceramics and refractory shapes are also useful in providing flame protection and fire-proofing between a burner and the surrounding environment, or between combustion and oxygen sources.
Wear-resistant ceramics are used in industrial products such as automotive rings, pump parts, valve seals/seats, faucet discs, papermaking machine dewatering strips, aluminum can dies, wire drawing dies and textile guides.
Other unlisted, specialized or proprietary applications.
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Aluminum nitride (AlN) ceramics are compounds of aluminum metal and nitrogen. Aluminum nitride is relatively inert. Its good thermal conductivity, combined with high electrical insulation ability, makes these materials useful as substrates, insulators, and barrier layers in microelectronics applications.
Alumina or aluminum oxide (Al2O3) is a compound that consists of aluminum and oxygen. Typically, it used in the alpha alumina structural form. In its pure form, alumina is a white ceramic material with high hardness. Fully-dense alumina can be translucent.
Alumina is used widely because of its versatility and relatively low cost. Depending on its purity and density, alumina is used to make refractory tubes, industrial crucibles, analytical labware, dielectric substrates, wear components, refractory cements and abrasives. Alumina’s main drawback is having relatively poor thermal shock resistance, which is due to its higher coefficients of thermal expansion and lower thermal conductivity compared to other pure ceramic materials, such as silicon carbide (SiC).
Zirconia-toughened alumina (ZTA) and other zirconia-alumina ceramics are often used in wear applications as an intermediate solution between alumina and zirconia. ZTA offers increased fracture toughness over alumina at a lower cost compared to pure or high zirconia ceramics. Depending on the purity and density, alumina is used for refractory tubes, industrial crucibles, analytical labware, wear components, refractory cements, and abrasives.
Boron carbide (B4C) has higher hardness than alumina or silicon carbide. Its oxidation product (B2O3) provides a protective skin at high temperatures (> 800oC). Because of its high hardness and wear resistance, boron carbide is applied in low-temperature applications such as grinding wheel dressers, and abrasive blast or water jet nozzles.
Boron nitride (BN) ceramics are based on compounds of boron and nitrogen. Boron nitride is relatively inert and has good thermal conductivity combined with good electrical insulation, making this material useful in fabricating substrates and insulators in microelectronics applications. BN is polymorphic, meaning that it occurs in a wide variety of crystalline structure forms. BN is available as amorphous or vitreous, pyrolytic, hexagonal, and cubic crystal structures. Cubic boron nitride (CBN) is a super abrasive that is second only to diamond in hardness.
BN is more resistant to oxidation than carbon. Depending on the purity, density and crystal structure, boron nitride is used for refractory linings, industrial crucibles, arc furnace electrodes, analytical labware, composites, refractory cements, and super abrasives. Hexagonal BN is structurally weak and used as a high temperature lubricant, coating, or release agent.
Calcium aluminate (CaAlO3) refractories are usually derived from calcium aluminate, calcium, or alumina-bearing minerals. Calcium aluminate is used in refractory cements and shapes, as well as synthetic slag additions for metallurgical operations.
Carbides and carbide materials include silicon carbide, tungsten carbide, and titanium carbide as well as other compounds of a metal (Ti, W, Cr, Zr) or metalloid (B, Si) and carbon. Carbides have excellent wear-resistance and high hot hardness.
Ceria, cerium oxide, or ceric oxide is used in ceramics, solid oxide fuel cells, in optical polishing compounds, and as a sensitizer in photosensitive glass. Cerium is also part of the rare earth oxides group.
Cordierite (2MgO·2Al2O3·5SiO2) or cordierite porcelain is a magnesium aluminum silicate produced by fusing a mixture of talc, clay, and aluminum oxide. Cordierite and cordierite mineral precursors are also known as magnesium-alumino silicate, dichroite, and iolite. Cordierite has a low coefficient of thermal expansion, high mechanical strength, and low dielectric loss. Cordierite is commonly fabricated into an insulator or insulating substrate because of its good dielectric properties. Cordierite has excellent thermal-shock resistance. It can withstand a red heat to ice water quench, and then be returned to red heat. High-fire cordierite body will withstand a temperature rise from 70º to 1800º in 80 seconds, followed by an immediate room-temperature air quench.
Electrostrictive ceramics are relaxor ferroelectric ceramics. Strains vary quadratically with electric field for an electrostrictor, rather than linearly as in a piezoelectric ceramics. Relaxors exhibit very high dielectric constants ( K > 20,000), diffuse ferroelectric-to-paraelectric phase transitions, and electrostrictive strain vs. electric field behavior.
Electrostrictors excel at high frequencies and very-low driving fields. Often, they are applied in specialized microactuators. Electrostrictors display little or no hysteretic loss even at very high frequencies of operation, due to the lack of spontaneous polarization. For transducer applications, electrostrictors must operate under a DC bias field to induce piezoelectric behavior. Operation under bias is characterized by field-dependent piezoelectric and electromechanical coupling coefficients.
Relaxors exhibit poor temperature stability and they operate best in situations where the temperature can be stabilized to within approximately 10°C.
Forsterite is a stoichiometric magnesium orthosilicate (Mg2SiO4) used in applications that require a high coefficient of thermal expansion. Forsterite has desirable electrical insulation properties and is used as a layer on transformer steel sheets. This layer is formed by the reaction of magnesium oxide with the silicon additions of the steel during annealing. Forsterite is also used in bulk form to fabricate insulators.
Glass ceramics are ceramics that can be fused and then molded, formed, ground, or machined using conventional glass fabrication techniques. After part fabrication, the glass ceramic's structure is transformed from an amorphous, glassy state to a crystalline ceramic state. MACOR®is widely applied glass ceramic with a fluorine rich glass composition approaching trisilicic fluorphlogopite mica (KMg3AlSi3O10F2). MACOR®is a trademarked proprietary material of Corning Corporation. Ceran®, Ceramat®, Robax® and Zerodur® are widely-applied proprietary glass ceramics from Schott Glass Corporation.
Hafnia or hafnium oxide is similar in nature to zirconia, exhibiting high refractoriness or thermal stability and reasonable elevated temperature strength. Hafnia is useful for crucibles, tubes, and thermocouple sheath is specific applications. Hafnia can be stabilized with calcia (CaO) or yttria (Y2O3) for high-temperature applications. Hafnia has a higher bulk density (9 g/cc) compared to zirconia (5.7 g/cc). Hafnium and zirconium occur together in nature. Hafnium films are used in optical coating applications where they provide a high-index, low-absorption material in the near-UV to IR regions.
Mullite (3Al2O3-2Si02 or Al6Si2O13) is a compound of aluminum, silicon, and oxygen. Mullite can also be viewed as a phase in the alumina-silica binary system. Mullite is a synthetic, fused, or calcined crystalline aluminum silicate produced in electric arc furnaces from alumina and silica. Mullite usually has an off-white or tan color. Depending on the purity and density, mullite can have superior dielectric and thermal shock properties and resistance to slag and silicate refractory bonds. Mullite is used for refractory tubes, industrial crucibles, analytical labware, dielectric substrates, wear components, and in refractory cements. Calcining kyanite minerals often derive refractory grade mullite or alumina-mullite mixtures.
Piezoelectric ceramics include quartz and ferroelectric or perovskite materials. Ferroelectric materials include lead titanates, lead zirconates, lead zirconate titanates (PZT), barium titanates, barium tantalate, and lead magnesium niobates. Ferroelectric materials and have the general formula ABO3 . Piezoelectric materials produce an electrical charge when a load is applied and deformation occurs. These properties make piezoelectric materials useful for pressure or load sensors. Inversely, piezoelectric materials produce force or deformation when a load is an electrical charge applied. These properties make piezoelectric materials useful for microactuators, nanoactuators, or piezoelectric motors.
Quartz is found in a mined mineral form, as well as man-made fused quartz forms. Fused quartz is a high purity, crystalline form of silica used in specialized applications such as semiconductor wafer boats, furnace tubes, bell jars or quartzware, silicon melt crucibles, high-performance lamps such as mercury and quartz halogen lamps, ultraviolet (UV) lamps, thermocouple protectors, waveguide handles, analytical labware, and other high-temperature products. Single-crystal quartz is also available for piezoelectric applications.
Rare earth oxides (REO) ceramics are manufactured from Lanthanide series metal oxides such as lanthana, samaria, ytterbia, and ceria. Rare earth oxide can have unique chemical and surface tension modifying properties. Mixed rare earth compositions consist of rare earth oxides combined with more conventional oxides; oxides of La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb and Lu.
Sapphire is a high-purity and high-density, single-crystalline form of aluminum oxide, which may contain chromia, titania, yttria, or other dopants. Sapphire is usually transparent or translucent.
Sapphire ceramics are used in lasers, substrates, jewel bearings, watch crystals or other optical, wear, electronic, and specialized applications. Ruby, corundum, and topaz are other names for natural or synthetic sapphire. Ruby is chromium-doped sapphire used in optical filters and laser rods.
SiAlON (Al2O3-Si3N4) is an alloy of silicon nitride and aluminum oxide. SiAlON has the combined properties of silicon nitride (high strength, hardness, fracture toughness, and low thermal expansion) and aluminum oxide (corrosion resistance, chemically inert, high temperature capabilities, and oxidation resistance). SiAlON is a superior refractory material for components exposed to high temperatures, mechanical abuse, corrosion, wear, or applications requiring electrical resistance.
Ceramics are based on silica and silicate materials. Silica and silicates are compounds of silicon and oxygen. For dielectric applications, silicates are modified with magnesium and/or aluminum to provide sufficient dielectric properties. Cordierite and steatite are silicates that are commonly used in dielectric applications. High-purity, amorphous, fused silica is a high-performance ceramic with very low expansion, remarkable thermal shock resistance, low thermal conductivity, excellent electrical insulation up to 1000° C, and excellent resistance to corrosion from molten metal and glass.
Silicon carbide (SiC) is a compound of silicon metalloid and oxygen. Typically, SiC is used in the alpha silicon carbide structural form. Silicon carbide is a black, high-hardness ceramic that is usually harder than alumina. Depending on the addition of impurities, SiC may be green or black in color. Fully-dense SiC can be transparent (moissanite).
SiC is used widely because of its versatility and relatively low cost. Depending on its purity and density, SiC is used in refractory tubes, industrial crucibles, wafer semi-insulating substrates, wear components, refractory cements, and abrasives. SiC forms a protective SiO2 skin that prevents further oxidation at very high temperatures in non-reducing atmospheres. Because of its low coefficient of thermal expansion and high thermal conductivity, SiC has a relatively high thermal shock resistance compared to other ceramic materials.
Steatite or steatite porcelains are based on hydrated magnesium silicate (3MgO-4SiO2-4H2O) and are similar in composition to naturally-occurring soapstone or mineral talc. Steatite ceramics may also have additions of alumina, calcia, and ferrous oxide. Resistance heaters and electrical insulators are commonly made of steatite due to the material's low cost, refractoriness, and high electrical resistance at high temperatures. Steatite and steatite minerals are also known as soapstone, massive talc, block steatite, and soapstone silicate. Steatite ceramic is ideal for high frequency, low loss, and high voltage insulation. Steatite has good mechanical properties and low loss electrical qualities. It is ideal for resistor forms, igniters, standoffs, surge arrestors, coil forms, spacers, spark plugs, etc. Steatite is easily fabricated to close tolerances and is much less expensive than alumina ceramic insulators.
Silicon nitride (Si3N4) is a compound that consists of silicon and nitrogen. It has superior mechanical properties and forms a protective SiO2 skin at high temperatures. Silicon nitride ceramics are difficult to sinter by conventional means because the material dissociates above 1800o C.
Yttria or yttrium oxide powders are used as additives for strengthening ceramics, forming phosphors, microwave garnets, and lasing garnets. Yttria powders are also used to form a molten, metal-resistant coating on the internal walls of crucibles. Yttria additions in zirconia ceramics can stabilize the tetragonal phase, providing a transformation toughening mechanism. Yttria is used as a constituent in yttrium-iron garnets for microwave applications and neodybnium-yttrium-aluminum garnets for Nd:YAG laser applications. High temperature superconductors, such as YBa2Cu3O, also utilize yttrium. While not technically within the rare earth group, yttrium oxide shares many of the properties typical of REO materials.
Zirconia or zirconium oxide (ZrO2) is a refractory compound of zirconium and oxygen. Zirconia may have additions of calcia, magnesia, or yttria to stabilize the structure into a cubic structure. Zirconia stabilized in the cubic crystal structure avoids cracking and mechanical weakening during heating and cooling. Certain zirconia materials have the ability to transformation toughen (tetragonal to monoclinic phase change) under applied stress. They are often used in wear applications that require improved fracture toughness and stiffness over alumina. Zirconia ceramics possess excellent chemical inertness and corrosion resistance at temperatures well above the melting point of alumina. Zirconia is more costly than alumina, so it is only used where alumina will fail. Zirconia has low thermal conductivity and is an electrical conductor above 800° C. Zirconia is used to fabricate oxygen sensors or fuel cell membranes because it possesses the unique ability to allow oxygen ions to move freely through the crystal structure above 600° C. Zirconia products should not be used in contact with alumina above 1600°C. Depending on the purity and density, zirconia is used in refractory tubes or cylinders, industrial crucibles, analytical labware, sensors, wear components, refractory cements, thermocouple protection tubes, furnace muffles, liners, and high temperature heating element supports.
Specialty ceramics include nitrides, borides, carbon or graphite, silicides, and other specialized non-metallic compounds. Specialty ceramics are sometimes called fine ceramics, advanced ceramics, engineered ceramics, technical ceramics, and high performance ceramics.
Specialty cement, concrete, and mortar contain specialized binders such as K silicate, calcium aluminate, sulfur, and oxysulfate or polymer resins. They cure or set through film drying (air setting), chemical reactions, thermoset bonds, hydraulic bond
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Stock products are available in the form of a bar or rod, usually with a square cross-section. Stock forms can be processed in rectangular, oval, hexagonal, or other shapes.
Beams, columns or supports are specialized shapes for the support of heat elements, kiln furniture, catalysts, or precision metrology components. Beams consist of open channels or rectangular tube shapes. Catalyst supports often consist of porous structures with large surface areas or honeycomb structures that hold a metal catalyst, providing easy exposure of a stream of reactive gases or other reactants. Kiln or heating element supports often consist of specialized profiles with channels for mounting of resistance heating elements. Cement columns are used to support sections of a building.
A gob is a melted and solidified lump of glass with a specific shape and weight. Gob are pressed into blanks or processed by machines into glass containers, labware, or other shapes. Gobs or blanks are known as parison or patterns. Optical blanks are rough oversized shapes used as feedstock to machine and grind lenses, flats, windows, mirrors and other optical components.
Blocks are building materials or masonry units consisting of fired ceramic or cement materials with a regular shape. Blocks usually have a rectangular shape, although specialized shapes are used for paving, refractory, decorative and other specialized applications. Refractory or fireclay blocks are manufactured from temperature resistant materials. Refractory blocks are stacked to form an insulating furnace, boiler, or other thermal process vessel wall. The refractory blocks are usually cemented together with a refractory mortar. Blocks are similar to bricks but typically smaller in overall dimensions.
Bricks are building materials or masonry units consisting of fired ceramic or cement materials with a rectangular shape. Red bricks have higher iron content and are used to build walls in structural or load bearing applications. Firebricks, refractory bricks, or fireclay bricks are stacked to form an insulating furnace, boiler, chimney or other thermal process vessel wall. The bricks are usually cemented together with a refractory mortar.
Ceramic potting compounds and adhesives usually consist of a mixture of an inorganic binder and a fine ceramic filler or aggregate used to insulate electrical conductors, resistance heating elements for use under elevated temperature conditions where a polymer based adhesive or potting compound would burn up or degrade. The fillers and binders must have low resistivity and high dielectric strength.
Cement-based coating products are thin-set materials applied in thinner layers than liner products, mortar or concretes. The terms thinset cement, thinset mortar, dryset mortar ,and drybond mortar are synonymous.
Materials are fabricated in the form of a custom or application-specific shape such as a crucible, valve seat, blade, fired custom shaped brick or block, custom contoured tile, diffuser, furnace lining, degasser, and precast cement or concrete structural shape. The custom shape could be fabricated using pressing, slip casting, firing or sintering, melting, casting, cement form casting, and/or other processing methods.
Ferrules and eyelets are cylindrically-shaped ceramic components with a central bore for protection or spacing applications. Eyelets are used in textile and wear guide applications. Ferrules or stand-offs are used in circuit board, fiber optic, and RF & microwave applications. Electronic ferrules or stand-offs required good dielectric properties. Refractory ferrules provide the best protection possible for vulnerable boiler tube inlet areas and metal tube sheets in sulfur recovery units (SRUs), methane reformers, and waste heat boilers (WHBs). Optical ceramic ferrules are used in the alignment of optical fiber. Electronic ferrules are used in spacing or insulating electronic components.
Spargers or diffusers are porous ceramics used to blow fine bubbles of a gas into a metal melt to remove impurities, particulates or other detrimental melt gases, de-oxidize melts, and enable chemical reactions. Filters are porous ceramics are used to remove impurities by passing the molten materials through the filter.
Foundry or plunger tools are designed to be immersed in molten metal and aid in the processing and casting of metal melts. Foundry and plunger tools include stirring rods, mixing paddles, dippers, skimmers, degasser tubes, degassing rotors, riser stalks, and stopper rods. Plunger mixers or stirring rods are dipped into molten materials to agitate, mix, or sample the metal or glass melt to assure consistent homogeneity. Stopper rods are used to control the flow and mixing of molten material in a crucible, ladle, pot or furnace. Stoppers are used to stop or control flow of a melt by plugging up a hole in the bottom of furnace crucible or melting pot. Dippers or skimmers are used to remove.
Granular fill is a loose, insulating material such as vermiculite that is loaded into a cavity to provide insulation and remains in a loose, unbonded condition. Bed media is a loose granular ceramic used in a catalytic oxidizer, fluid bed heater, or other thermal process unit to hold, filter or carry catalyst chemicals or particles during the heating, burning, or chemical reaction operation. Typically, ceramic bed media and granular fill have a high degree of porosity.
Investment may consist of a refractory powder with plaster or phosphate binder that is cast around a lost wax pattern. Investment may also consist of a ceramic slurry and powder that is coated onto a hanging lost wax, plastic or foam pattern. Permanent molds are made from refractory, ceramic, or ceramic-coated metal molds. Plastic refractory cement can be rammed around a reusable pattern to form a permanent ceramic mold or refractory shape. Refractory aggregates are also used to build up a shell in the investment casting process.
Beams, posts, setters, supports, rollers, baffles, kiln cars, boats, shelves, or other components are used to support, move, and process products or raw materials in furnaces or kilns.
Modular or sectional lining systems consist of a series of interlocking components that fit or stack together to form a protective furnace lining. Induction furnaces often utilize a modular furnace lining system fabricated from ceramics that do not interfere with the inductive heating process. Liners may use a backup of ramming cement behind the liner, but not within the interlocking grooves. Removal of refractory cement between the ceramic sections improves lining life and quality of the melt. Tongue and groove crucibles are a modular crucible system consisting of a series of interlocking components that stack together to form a furnace lining or crucible.
Pouring nozzles or orifices are used to direct or meter the flow of molten metal or other melted materials. Atomization nozzles are a critical component in the gas atomization process used to product metal powders. Ceramic nozzles are also used to shield other components of a system from arcs or abrasive jet/blast streams. Pouring cups, pouring tubes, tundish nozzles, and continuous casting tips also fit into this category. A launder or spout is used delivery molten metal or molten glass from a furnace to ladle or crucible, from furnace to furnace, or from a furnace or crucible to a mold or forming equipment.
Stock products are available in the form of a solid plate, slab, board, or substrate. The board or plate may consist of a ceramic fiberboard product, a dense sintered ceramic plate, or a precast cement bonded slab.
Stock or standard products are available in the form of a liquid, solid or gaseous chemical precursor, or sol-gel chemical components. Sol-gel ceramics are made using alkoxide precursor chemicals.
Ceramic sphere shapes are used in grinding attrition media, mechanical applications (check or ball valve), blasting, catalyst supports, tower packing, and other applications. Bearing or precision balls are precision-ground for hybrid ball bearings or other motion system application.
Tile consists of a flat, thin ceramic shape usually with beveled edges for lining or covering a surface. Tile may have square, rectangular, hexagonal, triangular, round or custom shapes. Tiles often have a protective glaze to create a waterproof or water resistance surface. Tile can be smooth and glossy for wall applications, or anti-slip textured with a matt finish for floor applications.
Wafer carriers and holders are specialized devices for processing of silicon or compound (GaAs) semiconductor wafers. Ceramics are used to fabricate wafer carriers due to their corrosion resistance and refractoriness. Wafers are mounted onto or held by the carriers during dicing, polishing, lapping, thinning, chemical mechanical planarization (CMP), inspection or other operations.
Ceramic products in the form of thin substrates and wafers are used in semiconductor, thin and thick-film deposition, and optoelectronics applications. The ceramic material may be a dielectric insulator, a semiconductor, or a semi-insulator. Wafers for semiconductor applications usually consist of round substrates that are precision-polished and planarized.
Rolls or rollers are tube or hollow shaped components used in bearing, rolling, and material handling applications. Ceramic rollers are a key component in hybrid ceramic roller bearings. Ceramic or fused silica rolls are used in furnaces to handle or move hot glass sheet or other thermally processed materials.
Tube stock has a single, central bore or inner diameter. Tubes are commonly used as heating elements, for thermocouple protection, or channeling molten metal.
Tubes or hollow beams with a round or rectangular cross-section are designed for use in a furnace. The tube forms a barrier between the furnace's heating elements and heated parts. Radiant heaters or furnace tubes contain a combustion heat source, or the heating elements, in order to provide infrared heating without contamination from combusted gases or attack of heating elements.
Sheathed, immersion, or closed-end tubes are designed to protect heating elements, burners, or other devices in high-temperature furnaces from immersion in molten metals, glasses, or other melted materials.
Other specialized, proprietary or unlisted concrete, mortar or cement-based product types.
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Density is the mass per unit area for a material. The fired density is dependent on the theoretical density of 100% dense body and the actual porosity retained after processing.
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This is the maximum temperature that the refractory or ceramic material can be exposed to momentarily without the degradation of structural or other required end-use properties. The maximum use temperature is usually equal to the melt temperature of the metal, glass, or other material contained by the refractory body in the furnace, boiler or process unit.
The Curie point is the temperature above which a material loses its unique magnetic, dielectric or piezoelectric property. Ferrites or other magnetic materials lose their unique magnetic properties above the Curie temperature. The relative permeability drops to a value below 0.1 above the Curie temperature. Magnetic susceptibility is inversely proportional to temperature.
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Thermal conductivity is the linear heat transfer per unit area through a material for a given applied temperature gradient. Heat flux (h) = [thermal conductivity (k) ] x [temperature gradient (Δ T)]
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Modulus of rupture (MOR), cross-break strength or flexural strength (3-point or 4-point) is the maximum flexural stress a bar can withstand before failure or fracture occurs. The bar is supported by two points beneath the bar and the load is applied by one or two points above the bar. Cross break strength is used to evaluate the strength of ceramics or other materials that do not provide sufficient plastic deformation to test tensile strength reliably.
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The crushing or compressive strength is the maximum compressive load per unit cross section that a ceramic body can withstand before mechanical failure or breakage occurs.
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Young's modulus or the modulus of elasticity is a material constant that indicates the variation is strain produced under an applied tensile load. Higher modulus of elasticity materials provides higher stiffness or rigidity.
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Electrical resistivity is the longitudinal electrical resistance (ohm-cm) of a uniform rod of unit length and unit cross-sectional area. Electrical resistivity is the inverse of conductivity. High resistivity is a defining characteristic of a dielectric material.
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Sintered or fired ceramics are homogenous materials in which individual grains or crystals are bonded to each other without the introduction of a foreign material (binder or cement) beyond small traces of dopants or sintering aids. These materials are densified through sintering or firing process. Sintered ceramics are sometime hot-pressed or hot isostatic pressed (HIP) to increase density close to theoretical.
Single crystal materials consist of a monocrystal or single grain without any grain boundaries. The atoms maintain the same unit cell pattern and orientation throughout the material. Single crystals of natural or man-made materials exhibit the desirable piezoelectric, optical or magnetic properties that cannot be attained with a polycrystalline ceramic material. An expanding variety of single crystals is being developed for acoustic, optical, wireless communication, and other applications.
Cemented carbide or hardmetals consist of tungsten, titanium, or other carbide particles bonded together in a cobalt, nickel or metal matrix. Tungsten carbide based materials for cutting tools or wear part application typically consist of cemented tungsten carbide. In some respects, cemented tungsten carbide materials could be characterized as metal matrix composites. Pure (non-cemented) tungsten carbide materials are being used for lower impact, high wear applications.
Carbon bonds are used in high temperature carbon-carbon composites. Carbon bonds are often created by converting an organic or resin binder to carbon using heat and a controlled atmosphere. Organic or polymer resin binders hold carbon, carbide, or other ceramics together until firing.
Magnesium phosphate cement is a rapid setting, early strength gain cement. It is usually used for special applications, such as repair of pavements and concrete structures or for resistance to certain aggressive chemicals. It does not contain Portland cement.
Sulfate-bond products are polycrystalline ceramics or aggregate-based refractories, cements or adhesives that use a sulfate or oxysulfate bond between individual grains or aggregates.
Sulfur cement melts at temperatures between 113° C and 121° C. Sulfur concrete is maintained at temperatures around 130° C during mixing and placing. The material gains strength quickly as it cools, and is resistant to acids and aggressive chemicals. Sulfur cement does not contain Portland or hydraulic cement.
Other unlisted, specialized, or proprietary bond types.
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Plate, sheet, tiles, brick, block, bars, or other stock shapes have a textured surface such as an anti-slip grit or abrasive coating, kiln cast pattern, a frosted or etched surface, molded-in raised bumps. The texture can be for functional anti-slip or decorative architectural purposes.
Coated materials use or are available with a glaze (fused glass enamel), metallized coating, plastic coating or other protective coating. The coating may seal porosity, improve water or chemical resistance, or enhance joining to metals or other materials. This category also includes glass materials with an organic coating or film, or ceramic frit coating for spandrel applications.
Composite materials consist of a matrix material reinforced with a stronger or higher modulus second phase. The second phase may be in the form of particulates, chopped fibers or continuous fibers. The matrix may consist of a ceramic in CRC or ceramic matrix composites. Ceramic or reinforcing fibers are commonly chosen with high modulus and/or strength.
Fibreboards, fiber-based, or fiber-reinforced products include ceramic boards, cylinders or shapes that contain ceramic or mineral wool fibers to improve structural integrity or insulating characteristics.
Machinable ceramics can be machined in the green, glass or finished state without excessive chipping. Typically, non-machinable ceramics are ground to finished dimensions, often with super abrasive grinding wheels.
Porous ceramics have a large degree of open or closed internal pores that provide a thermal barrier. Certain ceramics have intrinsically low thermal conductivity, even in dense forms. Reticulated foam refractories are useful in filtering molten metals and providing an extremely low density structure for insulation or other applications.
Stock products are available as a coating, sealant or other form that can be pumped, brushed or sprayed onto a surface such as a furnace wall, mold or gas turbine blades. Surfaces may be constructed of ceramic, metal or polymer or other materials. Cement based product with a sufficiently low viscosity to allow pumping of the refractory into a joints or hot spots to make hot or cold repairs of a refractory body or component. Some castables or pumpables are useful for caulking or coating applications.
Both dry rams (vibratables) and wet mix rams are available. Wet rams are cement based products with enough plasticity to allow the wet mix to be rammed or formed into place in a furnace or in a form. Ramming material has a clay-to-putty like consistency. Rams generally have lower water content and less plasticity than moldables.
Dry rams are supplied as a dry powder that is applied and fired in place. Silicate, phosphate or other binders are activated upon firing. The dry refractory powders or aggregates are tamped or rammed into the floor or vibrated into place between the furnace wall and a removable furnace "former." On smaller furnaces, a formerless method is used where a unit is filled with dry refractory powder, fired and then the excess unfired refractory is removed for reuse. Some dry refractories are also called dry rams or dry ramming cements.
Soft ferrites have low magnetization and are used in applications where the fields and magnetizations are cycled frequently and hysteresis losses are critical. Soft ferrites exhibit magnetic properties only when they are subject to a magnetizing force such as the magnetic field created when current is passed through wire surrounding a soft magnetic core. Ceramic ferrites have a distinct advantage in some applications (magnetic cores) over ferromagnetic metals because their highly resistive nature eliminates or minimizes eddy current losses.
Soft piezoelectrics are less resistant to stress induced depolarization compared to hard piezoelectrics. High sensitivity or "soft" ceramics feature high sensitivity and permittivity, but if over driven these materials can be damaged due to self-heating beyond their operating temperature range or Curie temperature. Soft piezoelectrics are used in various sensors, low-power motor-type transducers, receivers, and low power generators.
Hard ferrites or magnetic materials have high magnetization or remanence (B) and these materials are used as permanent magnets. Hard ferrites retain their magnetization after the applied magnetic is removed. Soft ferrites have low magnetization and are used in applications where the fields and therefore magnetizations are cycled frequently and hysteresis losses are critical. Ceramic ferrites have a distinct advantage in some applications (magnetic cores) over ferromagnetic metals because their highly resistive nature eliminates or minimizes eddy current losses.
High power or "hard" piezoelectric ceramics can withstand high levels of electrical excitation and mechanical stress. These materials are suited for high voltage or high power generators and transducers. Hard piezoelectric ceramics are more resistant to stress induced depolarization compared to soft piezoelectrics. Hard piezoelectric materials are characterized by a very high load or distortion constant, low hysteresis and high Qm.
Ceramic surfaces are coated with a thin metal layer applied by plating, thin film, fired-on coating or other process. The coatings maybe continuous or selectively patterned on the surface or thru vias. In addition, float glass sheet or glass plate silvered to produce sheet mirror stock.
Other unlisted, specialized, or proprietary material features.
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